Understanding Western Music Theory: Music theory considers the practices and possibilities of music. It is generally derived from observation of how musicians and composers actually make music but include hypothetical speculation. Most commonly, the term describes the academic study and analysis of fundamental elements of music such as pitch, rhythm, harmony, and form, but also refers to descriptions, concepts, or beliefs related to music.
Because of the ever expanding conception of what constitutes music (see Definition of music), a more inclusive definition could be that music theory is the consideration of any sonic phenomena, including silence, as it relates to music.
Music theory is a subfield of musicology, which is itself a subfield within the overarching field of the arts and humanities. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek θεωρία, a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a spectacle.
As such, it is often concerned with abstract musical aspects such as tuning and tonal systems, scales, consonance and dissonace, and rhythmic relationships, but there is also a body of theory concerning such practical aspects as the creation or the performance of music, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, and
electronic sound production.
A person working in music theory is a music theorist. Methods of analysis include mathematics, graphic analysis, and, especially, analysis enabled by Western music notation. Comparative, descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used.
The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory may be found in oral and practical music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artefacts. For example, ancient instruments from Mesopotamia, China, and prehistoric sites around the world reveal details about the music they produced and, potentially, something of the musical theory that might have been used by their makers (see History of music and Musical instrument).
In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music-making. Many cultures, at least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia, Pharaonic Egypt, and ancient China have also considered music theory in more formal
ways such as written treatises and music notation.
The beginnings of music theory can be observed in extremely ancient instruments, artifacts, and later, depictions of performance in artworks.
As early as the Paleolithic, it appears people considered elements of music in some way. For instance, a bone flute with carefully placed finger holes found in Hohle Fels in Germany and dated c.35,000 BCE, may be a prehistoric example of the manufacture of an instrument to produce a preconceived set of pitches. For further discussion of Upper Paleolithic flutes, see d’Errico, et al. 2003, 39– 48.
Similar bone flutes (gǔdí, ????) from Neolithic Jiahu, China dated c. 7,000 BCE reveal their makers progressively added more holes to expand their scales, structured pitch intervals closer to each other to adjust tuning, and
could play increasingly expressive and varied music.
“Tonal analysis of the flutes revealed that the seven holes [in some of the flutes] correspond to a tone scale remarkably similar to Western eight-pitch scales.”
These instruments[9] indicate their makers became familiar with acoustics and developed theories of music comparable to those of later times. Audio recordings of two of these flutes by Brookhaven National Laboratory are available here.
In North America, similar flutes from the Anasazi In dian culture were found in Arizona and dated c. 600–750 CE, but again, suggest an older tradition. These instruments typically have six finger holes ranging one and a half octaves. As with all these ancient flutes, it is likely an error to imagine the Anasazi flutes were limited to only as many tones as they have holes.
Changes in embouchure, overblowing, and cross-fingering are common techniques on modern flutes like these that produce a much larger range of notes within an octave and in octaves
above the fundamental octave.
The earliest known examples of written music theory are inscribed on clay tablets found in Iraq and Syria, some of which contain lists of intervals and other details from which “…musicologists have been able to produce credible reconstructions of the Mesopotamian tonal and tuning systems.” Tablets from Ugarit contain what are known as the Hurrian songs or Hurrian Hymns dated c. 1,400 BCE. An interpretation of the only substantially complete Hurrian Hymn, h.6, may be heard here.
The system of phonetic notation in Sumer and Babylonia is based on a music terminology that gives individual names to nine musical strings or “notes”, and to fourteen basic terms describing intervals of the fourth and fifth that were used in tuning string instruments (according to seven heptatonic diatonic scales), and terms for thirds and sixths that appear to have been used to fine tune (or temper in some way) the seven notes generated for each scale.
Over time, many cultures began to record their theories of music in writing by describing practices and theory that was previously developed and passed along through oral tradition. In cultures where no written examples exist, oral traditions indicate a long history of theoretical consideration, often with unique concepts of use, performance, tuning and intervals, and other fundamental elements of music.
The Vedas, the sacred texts of India (c.1,000–500 BCE) contain theoretical discussion of music in the Sama Veda and Yajur-Veda, however, these texts are widely considered to be based on far older oral traditions. The Natya Shastra, written between 200 BCE to 200 CE and attributed to Bharata Muni, discusses classes of melodic structure, intervals, consonance and dissonance, performance, and other theoretical aspects such a “shruti,” defined as the least perceivable difference between two pitches.
The music of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is known through the many instruments discovered. Thirty-two condor-bone flutes and thirty-seven cornet-like instruments made of deer and llama bones have been recovered from a site at Caral, Peru dating to c. 2,100 BCE. Flute No. 15 produces five distinct fundamental tones.
A Mayan marimba-like instrument (c.350 CE), made from five turtle shells of decreasing sizes suspended on a wooden frame, has been discovered in Belize. Later artwork depicts ensemble and solo performance. Taken together, this evidence does not in itself demonstrate anything about music theory in Mesoamerica from at least 2,000 BCE, though
“… it is widely accepted that finds and depictions of ancient musical instruments are not only markers of musical traditions in space and time. … The information obtained from the archaeological record can be deepened considerably when ancient scripts, historical treaties, and other written sources concerning music are related. Such documents offer notes on performance practices and their sociocultural contexts.
For some cultures, hints concerning ancient music theory and musical aesthetics may also be found.”
Music theory in ancient Africa can also be seen in instruments. The Mbira, a wood or bamboo-tined instrument similar to a Kalimba, appeared on the west coast of Africa about 3,000 years ago, and metal-tined lamellophones appeared in the Zambezi River valley around 1,300 years ago. In the 20th century, these instruments produce a number of tones, ranging to 32 separate pitches, and demonstrate a great variety of tunings— tunings
“so dissimilar as to offer no apparent common foundation”,
something that might have been expected at least by 1932. The djembe, a common type of drum, likely originated from earlier, extremely ancient drums. Djembe ensembles create complex polyrhythmic patterns, but produce a variety of pitches depending on size and playing technique, usually producing at least three separate tones. African music theory is also preserved in oral and cultural traditions that are one example of the great variety of concepts of fundamental aspects of music around the world.
In China, a variety of wind, string, percussion instruments, and written descriptions and drawings of them from the Shang Dynasty (c.16th to 11th century BCE), show sophisticated form and design. During the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC), a formal system of court and ceremonial music later termed “yayue” was established.
As early as the 7th century BCE, a system of pitch generation was described based on a ratio of 2:3 and a pentatonic scale was derived from the cycle of fifths, the beginnings of which may be seen in the 7,000 year-old Jiahu bone flutes. In the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng (5th century BCE), among many other instruments, a set of bronze chime bells were found that sound five complete seven note octaves in the key of C Major and include twelve semitones.
The Analects of Confucius, believed to have been written c. 475 to 221 BC, discuss the aesthetics of what Confucius considered to be the most benevolent form and use of music, in contrast to popular music of his time—an example of early music criticism and consideration of aesthetics.
Around the time of Confucius, the ancient Greeks, notably Pythagoras (c. 530 BCE), Aristotle (c. 350 BCE),[39] Aristoxenus (c. 335 BCE),[40] and later Ptolemy (c. 120 CE),[41] speculated and experimented with ideas that became the basis of music theory in Middle Eastern and Western cultures during the Middle Ages as can be seen, for example, in the writing of Boethius in 5th century Rome and Yunus al-Katibin 7th cen tury Medina.
Middle Eastern and Western theory diverged in different directions from ancient Greek theory and created what are now two distinctly different bodies of theory and styles of music.
As Western musical influence spread throughout the world in the 1800s, Western theory became adopted as an international standard, but many other theoretical traditions in both textual and oral traditions continue to be used to create the distinctive music of the world’s cultures.
For example, the long and rich musical traditions unique to ancient and current cultures of Africa are primarily oral, but inherently contain consideration of specific forms, genres, performance practices, as well as tuning, and other aspects of music theory.
Among the major contributors to the field are the ancient Greeks Archytas, Aristotle, Aristoxenus, Eratosthenes, Plato, Pythagoras, and later Ptolemy; in the Middle Ages of Europe, Boethius, Franco of Cologne, Guido of Arezzo, Hucbald of Saint-Amand, Jacob of Liège, Jean de Muris; later in Europe, Zarlino, Rameau, Werckmeister, Fux; more recently, Riemann, Schenker, Boulanger, and Schoenberg (see List of music theorists);
in India, Bharata Muni, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, Purandara Dasa, Sharngadeva; in the Middle East, Ibn Misjah, Ibrahim al-Mawsili and his son Ishaq, Yunus al- Katib, Ibn Sina (known in Europe as Avicenna); in China, Confucius, Yong Menzhoue, and Cao Rou.
Table of Contents
Understanding Western Music Theory
History of music theory
Fundamentals of music
- Pitch
- Scales and modes
- Consonance and dissonance
- Rhythm
- Chord
- Melody
- Harmony
- Texture
- Timbre
- Expression
- Form or structure
- Performance and style
- Music perception and cognition
- Serial composition and set theory
- Musical semiotics
Music subjects
- Notation
- Mathematics
- Analysis
- Ear training
See also
Notes
Sources
Further reading
External links
Musical notation
History
- Ancient Near East
- Ancient Greece
- Byzantine Empire
- South West Asia
- Early Europe
Modern staff notation
- Specialized notation conventions
Notation in various countries
- India
- Russia
- China
- Korea
- Japan
- Indonesia
Other systems and practices
- Cipher notation
- Solfège
- Letter notation
- Tablature
- Klavar notation
- Piano roll based notations
- 12-note non-equal temperament
- Chromatic staff notations
- Graphic notation
- Simplified Music Notation
- Modified Stave Notation
- Parsons code
- Braille music
- Integer notation
- Rap notation
Music notation on computer
Perspectives of musical notation in composition and musical performance
Patents
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Pitch (music)
Perception of pitch
- Pitch and frequency
- Theories of pitch perception
- Just-noticeable difference
- Aural illusions
Definite and indefinite pitch
Pitch standards and Standard pitch
Labeling pitche
Scales
Other musical meanings of pitch
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Pitch circularity
- See also
- References
Interval (music)
Size
- Frequency ratios
- Cents
Main intervals
Interval number and quality
- Number
- Quality
- Example
Shorthand notation
Inversion
Classification
- Melodic and harmonic
- Diatonic and chromatic
- Consonant and dissonant
- Simple and compound
- Steps and skips
- Enharmonic intervals
Minute intervals
Compound intervals
- Main compound intervals
Intervals in chords
- Chord qualities and interval qualities
- Deducing component intervals from chord names and symbols
Size of intervals used in different tuning systems
Interval root
Interval cycles
Alternative interval naming conventions
- Latin nomenclature
Pitch-class intervals
Generic and specific intervals
- Comparison
Generalizations and non-pitch uses
See also
Notes
External links
Note
Accidentals
12-tone chromatic scale
Note designation in accordance with octave name
Written notes
Note frequency (hertz)
History of note names
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
Semitone
Minor second
Augmented unison
History
Semitones in different tunings
- Meantone temperament
- Equal temperament
- Well temperament
- Pythagorean tuning
- Just intonation
- Other equal temperaments
See also
References
Further reading
Octave
Theory
Notation
- First octave
See also
References
External links
Tritone
Augmented fourth and diminished fifth
Definitions
- Broad interpretation (chromatic scale)
- Strict interpretation (diatonic scale)
Size in different tuning systems
Eleventh harmonic
Dissonance and expressiveness
Common uses
- Occurrences in diatonic scales
- Occurrences in chords
- Resolution
- Other uses
Historical uses
See also
Sources
External links
Major second
Major and minor tones
Epogdoon
- Further reading
See also
Sources
Minor second
In other temperaments
See also
References
Major third
See also
References
Minor third
Pythagorean minor third
See also
References
Perfect fourth
History
- Middle ages
Renaissance and Baroque
Classical and Romantic
20th century music
See also
References
Perfect fifth
Alternative definitions
Other qualities of fifth
Pitch ratio
Use in harmony
Bare fifth, open fifth, or empty fifth
Use in tuning and tonal systems
References
See also
Supertonic
Sources
Submediant
See also
Sources
Mediant
See also
Sources
Subdominant
Sources
Subtonic
See also
Sources
Further reading
Tonic (music)
Importance and function
See also
References
Chord (music)
Definition and history
Notation
- Roman numerals
- Figured bass notation
- Macro analysis
- Tabular notation
Characteristics
- Number of notes
- Scale degree
- Inversion
- Secundal, tertian, and quartal chords
- Harmonic Content
Triads
Seventh chords
Extended chords
Altered chords
Added tone chords
Suspended chords
Borrowed chords
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Scale (music)
23.1 Background
- Scales, steps, and intervals
- Scales and pitch
- Types of scale
- Harmonic content
- Scales in composition
Western music
Naming the notes of a scale
Scalar transposition
Jazz and blues
Non-Western scales
Microtonal scales
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Dominant (music)
Dominant chords
- Triads
- Seventh chord
- Dominant chord in authentic cadence
Dominant key
- In tonal modulation
In non-Western music
See also
Sources
Sequence (music)
Types of sequences
- Descending fifths
- Ascending fifths
- Descending thirds
- Pachelbel sequence
Examples
See also
Sources
List of musical scales and modes
See also
Notes
Diatonic and chromatic
History
- Greek genera
- Medieval coloration
- Renaissance chromaticism
Diatonic scales
- Modern meanings
Chromatic scale
Musical instruments
Intervals
- In different systems of tuning
Chords
Harmony
Miscellaneous usages
- Notes
- Inflection
- Progression
- Modulation
- Pentatonic scale
Modern extensions
- Extended pitch selections
- Rhythms
See also
Notes and references
Bibliography
- Diatonic
Diatonic scale
History
- Prehistory
Theory
Analysis
- Major scale
- Natural minor scale
- Modes
- Diatonic scales and tetrachords
Properties
Tuning
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Chromatic scale
Notation
Non-Western cultures
Total chromatic
See also
Sources
External links
Recommended Reading
Major scale
Structure
- Scale degrees
- The circle of fifths
Broader sense
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Minor scale
Natural minor scale
Harmonic minor scale
Melodic minor scale
Finding key signatures
Related modes
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Pentatonic scale
Pervasiveness
Types of pentatonic scales
- Hemitonic and anhemitonic
- Major pentatonic scale
- Minor pentatonic scale
- Five black-key pentatonic scales of the piano
Pythagorean tuning
Further pentatonic musical traditions
Use in education
Further reading
See also
References
External links
Heptatonic scale
Diatonic scale
Melodic minor scale
Harmonic minor scale
Heptatonia prima and secunda
- Heptatonia prima
- Heptatonia secunda
Heptatonia tertia
Other heptatonic scales
Melakarta
Thaat
Chinese Gongche notation
See also
References
Phrygian dominant scale
Traditional use
Composition
Use in rock
See also
Notes
Further reading
External links
Hungarian minor scale
Notable recordings
See also
Notes
References
Recommended reading
External links
Persian scale
See also
Sources
Further reading
External links
Lydian augmented scale
See also
Sources
Further reading
Aeolian dominant scale
See also
References
Half diminished scale
Applications
References
Acoustic scale
See also
Sources
External links
Altered scale
See also
Sources
External links
Mode (music)
Mode as a general concept
Additional meanings
Modes and scales
Greek
- Greek scales
- Tonoi
- Harmoniai
- Melos
Western Church
- Use
Modern
- Analysis
- Summary
- Use
Other types
Analogues in different musical traditions
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Dorian mode
Greek Dorian mode
Medieval and modern Dorian mode
- Medieval Dorian mode
- Modern Dorian mode
Notable compositions in Dorian mode
- Traditional
- Classical
- Jazz
- Popular
See also
References
Phrygian mode
Ancient Greek Phrygian mode
Medieval Phrygian mode
Modern Phrygian mode
Modern uses of the Phrygian mode
- Phrygian dominant
- The Phrygian Mode in Jazz
Examples
- Ancient Greek
- Medieval and Renaissance
- Baroque
- Romantic
- Modern
- Popular
- Jazz
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Lydian mode
Theory
- Ancient Greek Lydian
- Medieval Lydian mode
- Modern Lydian mode
Notable compositions in the Lydian mode
- Classical (Ancient Greek)
- Classical (Modern)
- Jazz
- Popular
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Mixolydian mode
Greek Mixolydian
Medieval Mixolydian and Hypomixolydian
Modern Mixolydian
Moloch scale
Notable music in Mixolydian mode
- Traditional
- Popular
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Ionian mode
References
See also
External links
Hypoionian mode
References
Aeolian mode
History
Songs that use Aeolian mode
See also
References
External links
Hypoaeolian mode
References
Locrian mode
History
Modern Locrian
Overview
Usage
References
Further reading
External links
Hypolocrian mode
References
Byzantine music
Early years
- The Pythagorean and the Neo-Pythagorean concept of cyclical mathematics
- Instruments between the Byzantine and the Carolingian court
- Acclamations at the court and the Book of Ceremonies
- The Desert Fathers and urban monasticism
- Romanos the Melodist, the kontakion, and the Justinian Hagia Sophia
- Changes in architecture and liturgy, and the introduction of the cherubikon
- Monastic reforms at Constantinople and Palestine
The monastic reform of the Stoudites and their notated chant books
- The cyclic organization of lectionaries
- The Hagiopolites treatise
The Slavic reception
- The missions of Cyril and Methodius
- The Kievan Rus’ and the earliest manuscripts of the cathedral rite
The end of the cathedral rite at Constantinople
- The kontakarion of the Norman Archimandritates
- The kontakarion of the Peninsula Athos
The era of psaltic art and the new mixed rite of Constantinople
- The revision of the chant books
- Kalophonia
- The synthesis between harmonikai and papadikai
Ottoman era
- Chant between Raidestinos, Chrysaphes the Younger, Germanos of New Patras and Balasios
- Petros Bereketes and the school of the Phanariotes
- The Putna school of the Bukovina
- Phanariotes at the new music school of the patriarchate
The Orthodox reformulation according to the new method
- Konstantinos Byzantios’ renunciation of the new method
- The old school of the patriarchate
- The modern school of the patriarchate
The Simon Karas school at Athens
Modern composers
See also
References
External links
Leading-tone
See also
Sources
Harmonic series (music)
Terminology
- Partial, harmonic, fundamental, inharmonicity, and overtone
Frequencies, wavelengths, and musical intervals in example systems
Harmonics and tuning
Timbre of musical instruments
Interval strength
See also
References
External links
Harmonic
Characteristics
Harmonics and overtones
Harmonics on stringed instruments
- Table
- Artificial harmonics
Other information
See also
References
External links
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
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